Learning Theory and Online Technologies Harasim, Linda Quick Chapter Conclusions and Key points

Learning Journal

Readings Managing Technology In Higher Education ..

Linda Harasim ( Chapter Summaries From Conclusions)

·      Introduction

o    The book examines the rationales for the use of technology in universities and colleges. A major feature of the book is the relationship between the use of information and communications technologies for teaching and learning, and the needs of learners in a knowledge-based society. In particular, it focuses on how the planning and management of technology can be used to transform teaching and learning within the institution.  Bates, A. W. (Tony); Sangra, Albert (2011-04-06). Managing Technology in Higher Education: Strategies for Transforming Teaching and Learning . Wiley. Kindle Edition.

·      Chapter 1

o    Challenges for the Universities Daniel (1999) claims that the modern university has to balance three competing forces: access, quality and cost. Can access—or the number of students—be increased without additional cost or a reduction in the quality of teaching? We see technology as one of the key factors that help to balance these three pressures, as illustrated in Figure  Bates, A. W. (Tony); Sangra, Albert (2011-04-06). Managing Technology in Higher Education: Strategies for Transforming Teaching and Learning (p. 22). Wiley. Kindle Edition.

o     Characteristics of Millenials

§  More specifically, with regard to higher education, Oblinger and Oblinger (2005a) identify the following characteristics as being typical for Millennials: Digitally literate in the sense of being comfortable and familiar with digital technology Connected to friends and the world through technology Immediacy: rapid multitasking, fast response to communications Experiential: they prefer to learn by doing rather than being told Highly social: “they gravitate toward activities that promote and reinforce social interaction” Group work: they prefer to work and play in groups or teams A preference for structure rather than ambiguity Engagement and interaction: an orientation toward action and inductive reasoning rather than reflection A preference for visual (that is, graphics, video) and kinesthetic learning rather than learning through text Active engagement in issues that matter to Millennials  Bates, A. W. (Tony); Sangra, Albert (2011-04-06). Managing Technology in Higher Education: Strategies for Transforming Teaching and Learning (pp. 13-14). Wiley. Kindle Edition.

·      Chapter  2 Recent evelopments in Technology

o    There is a seething cauldron of new technologies, and new approaches to teaching and learning are being driven by technological development. We shall see that, to date, the response of universities and colleges has been ultraconservative, focusing on protecting and enhancing the traditional model of teaching and learning, even though the context of postsecondary education has changed dramatically. The challenge then for institutions is to find ways to explore new approaches to teaching, learning, and administration that harness the power  Bates, A. W. (Tony); Sangra, Albert (2011-04-06). Managing Technology in Higher Education: Strategies for Transforming Teaching and Learning (pp. 50-51). Wiley. Kindle Edition.

o    Thus to ensure that technology is being appropriately harnessed to the needs of the academy of the future, the following questions must be asked: What kinds of learning are needed in the twenty-first century? What teaching philosophy or approach best supports these kinds of learning? In what ways do or can different technologies support twenty-first-century learning? How can technology best be used to improve the cost-effectiveness of institutional administration and management? How can institutions ensure that the best decisions are being made to address these questions?  Bates, A. W. (Tony); Sangra, Albert (2011-04-06). Managing Technology in Higher Education: Strategies for Transforming Teaching and Learning (p. 51). Wiley. Kindle Edition.

·      Chapter 3

o     Behaviorist Learning Theory

§  Introduced behaviorism, the earliest theory of learning developed. Behaviorism also offers the simplest explanation of learning theories to date. It focuses exclusively on behavior and posits that a stimulus leads to a response: S — R. The chapter explored the two major types of conditioning the characterize behaviorism. Classical conditioning, associated with Ivan Pavlov and his famous “dog experiments,” held that behavior is conditioned to become a reflex response to a stimulus. Operant conditioning, the theory of B. F. Skinner, refers to the reinforcement of a behavior by a reward or a punishment. There have been many critiques of behaviorism’s rigid focus on behavior and its extreme rejection of the mind. Critiques of Skinner’s research methods and the fact that his claims were based on very limited and restricted evidence also fueled the debate. Pedagogical approaches associated with behaviorist learning theory were explored under three categories: reward and punishment, behavioral instructional design, and taxonomies of learning. Behaviorism marks a time in American history in which efficiencies of learning and mass education were being emphasized. Industrialization required a huge labor force that was literate and able to follow instructions accurately.

Harasim, Linda (2012-03-22). Learning Theory and Online Technology (p. 45). Taylor and Francis. Kindle Edition.

·      Chapter 4

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§   Cognitivism emerged as a reaction to what had become viewed as simplistic and rigid emphasis by behaviorists on predictive stimulus-response. Cognitivism recognized that reinforcement did impact on the probability of certain behaviors but was in general interested in theorizing and modeling the mental structures and processes that could explain human behavior. The emphasis was on the mental or cognitive models. The rationale was that if it were possible to devise accurate models, then it would be possible to create and/or prescribe learning events to address more complex behaviors, such as problem solving and decision making. Nonetheless, cognitivists shared certain fundamental views and pedagogies with behaviorists. Cognitivist learning theory was instructor-centered: the focus was on the instructor and instructional design. Knowledge was to be transmitted to the learner, either by the instructor or by the instructional software.
 Cognitivism presupposed that the primary role of the learner is to assimilate what the teacher presents, and thus it retained a didactic model. Both behaviorism and cognitivism shared a similar epistemology: objectivism. This epistemology held that knowledge was known by the instructor who would predigest and then transmit it to the student. Cognitivism, like behaviorism, focused on individualized learning perspectives and procedures. There is some blurring between the behaviorist theoretical school and the cognitivist theory of learning, because some transitions were initiated or led by those who were participants in the previous school of thought. Still, cognitivism was a very strong field in educational psychology, and remains so. Nonetheless, a new theory of learning was about to challenge this school of thought: constructivism.

Harasim, Linda (2012-03-22). Learning Theory and Online Technology (p. 58). Taylor and Francis. Kindle Edition.

·      Schema Theory The concept of schema in cognitivist learning theory is related to mental representation and structural knowledge. Schema theory or schema perspectives hold that learning is easier if new subject matter is compared to existing knowledge and is structured or representational. Schema theory considers how our thinking uses various symbol systems, such as concept maps or graphic organizers, to help us learn and develop skills. Jonassen et al. (1993, p. 6) write that schema theory contends that knowledge is stored in information packets, or schema that comprise our mental constructs for ideas. A schema for an object, event, or idea is comprised of a set of attributes or slots that describe and therefore help us to recognize that object or event. These slots contain relationships to other schema. It is the interrelationships between schema that give them meaning. While there are many descriptions of what schemata are, Winn and Snyder (1996) note that all descriptions concur with the following characteristics: schema as memory structure: “It is an organized structure that exists in memory and, in aggregate with all other schemata, contains the sum of our knowledge of the world” (p. 118). For example, we recall certain structures in a book of fiction, such as plots. And our memory of a book is typically based on this structure (what happened? When? To whom? By whom?), even when we cannot recall exact details or make errors in our recall. schema as abstraction:

Harasim, Linda (2012-03-22). Learning Theory and Online Technology (p. 49). Taylor and Francis. Kindle Edition.

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·      Chapter 5

o   Organizational Structure and technological Integration

§  Although flexibility and adaptability are important, it is not enough to rely on purely ad hoc arrangements for identifying, discussing, recommending, and deciding on technology issues. Single projects that are not embedded in a wider strategy for technology are unlikely to be effective or successful. There needs to be ongoing mechanisms in place for dealing with technology issues as they arise; and arise they will as the technology and the external environment continues to change. The scope and range of technology applications has widened considerably with the applications of technology to teaching and learning. This has three key implications: A need for systematic and comprehensive training of instructors in teaching A need for professionally staffed units to support the use of learning technologies A clear governance structure for technology that involves all key stakeholders, and includes teaching, research, and administrative applications as well as technology infrastructure  Bates, A. W. (Tony); Sangra, Albert (2011-04-06). Managing Technology in Higher Education: Strategies for Transforming Teaching and Learning (p. 128). Wiley. Kindle Edition.

·      Chapter 7  OCL Pedagogies in Practice

o   a discussion and description of OCL pedagogies in practice. The chapter focused in detail on four pedagogic scenarios taken from real educational applications: online simulations and case studies of virtual organizations; student-led online seminars; co-production of real-world products and programs; and online educational games and immersive learning environments. Four virtual students were introduced as examples to depict the experiences of learners in the first two scenarios. The level of detail provides in-depth illustration of how

Harasim, Linda (2012-03-22). Learning Theory and Online Technology (p. 122). Taylor and Francis. Kindle Edition.

§  Living the Online Student Life Jennifer Jennifer is a busy professional who nonetheless wants to complete the undergraduate degree that she started some years ago but left when she entered the job market, then married and had a family. Given her responsibilities, a place-based university with courses rigidly scheduled at specific times and locations is not realistic. “For the last ten years, I have been attempting to find the time to go back to school. I attempted the traditional classroom settings, but due to work schedules and demands I never was able to stick to it.” Barry Barry works in sales and travels extensively, but is serious in seeking a university degree for job promotion and personal satisfaction. He regrets never attending post-secondary education. His challenge is how to pursue a university degree when his job takes him weekly around the world to destinations such as Bangkok, London and Paris, to name a few, as well as numerous cities in the United States throughout the year. Curt Curt is in his 12th year serving in the United States Army and, given the demands associated with the role of a soldier, has found it difficult to work toward a degree: “I have attempted many times to complete an undergraduate degree to no avail. I have
 had to withdraw from a number of college courses due to last minute training requirements and deployments.” LeAnne LeAnne was born, schooled and now and works in the high-tech sector in Hong Kong. She is fluent in English and her goal is to move to the United States in a few years to work in the same industry and advance her career. An American degree is important to her and she believes it is essential to realizing her professional plans. OCL Pedagogical Scenarios: Four Students and Online Study These four students seek a university program to meet their needs. They found that they have many options to choose from: every year, almost six million students in the United States alone take online courses. Some of the online universities are based on distance education (ODE) or courseware (OC) approaches, so instruction is not provided by a professor. Our four students are seeking courses that have a professor or an instructor and involve peer interaction and collaborative learning. “Having peers to talk to, to share the work, the fun and the challenges makes the learning more enjoyable and more effective for me,” writes Jennifer. LeAnne agrees, and adds that learning teamwork skills is important for her professionally as well. The four found many accredited universities that offer online degrees using the OCL model. There are differences, however, in how each university structures its programs. Some online universities offer undergraduate and graduate degree programs based on 6 weeks per course, with approximately 12 participants in each course. Students are limited to one course at a time.

Harasim, Linda (2012-03-22). Learning Theory and Online Technology (pp. 110-111). Taylor and Francis. Kindle Edition.

·      Chapter 8 OCL Cases of Institutional Innovation

o    How Many Students Are Studying Online?

§  The size of the market for online education is significant and growing rapidly, with almost six million students enrolled in online post-secondary education courses in the United States in 2010. Online enrollments have continued to grow at rates far in excess of the total higher-education student population, with the most recent data demonstrating no signs of slowing. In the public education sector, the overall number of K-12 students engaged in online courses in 2007/2008 was estimated at 1,030,000. This represented a 47% increase since 2005/2006, and school districts anticipated their online enrollments will continue to grow (Picciano & Seaman, 2009). In continuing and professional online education, online course enrollments accounted for about a fifth of continuing and professional education enrollments at the typical college or university (Ashburn, 2006). Ashburn cites the report based on a survey of 43 nonprofit institutions, which predicts that online continuing education enrollments will grow by about 20% each year for the next few years. The figures cited above provide a valuable overview on the growth of online education in the formal and nonformal education sectors today, both in for-profit and nonprofit. However, there is little or no data on pedagogical approaches being used. There are some hints, particularly in the data on continuing and professional online education. The survey reported that about half of the institutions surveyed said they outsourced at least some aspects of their online continuing-education

Harasim, Linda (2012-03-22). Learning Theory and Online Technology (p. ß126). Taylor and Francis. Kindle Edition.

·      Chapter 9 OCL Scenarios Online communities of Practice

o   Contextual Indicators (quantitative data) Level of participation (per person/per day/per topic) active messaging (# of msgs posted pp/pd) active reading of msgs read pp/pd) Volume of messaging (stabilizing, growing, declining) Stability (levels of participation changed over time) Existence of active core group Longevity (how long has it been around?) Social and Intellectual Indicators (qualitative data) Social discourse community building user engagement user satisfaction Intellectual discourse idea generating idea organizing intellectual convergence Moderator discourse introductions/context setting/design/agenda monitoring and advancing conclusions/meta analysis. Procedural Indicators (qualitative data) Administrative discourse, establishing goals and objectives (definition of the OCoP) policy guidelines statement of netiquette what is expected of members, role of members Coordinating functions Policy/procedures implementation. Technological Indicators Ease of use, access Availability of features to support collaborative learning and knowledge building, such as: scaffolds for various discourse types visualization tools (qualitative and quantitative) transcript analysis tools usage analysis tools content-generating tools organization and annotation tools Quality of system features Technical help/assistance.

§  focused on OCL in the context of informal learning, exemplified by online communities of practice (OCoPs). OCoPs function like a knowledge community by building knowledge related to practice. This process is described in some detail in the initial part of the chapter, which focuses on the context of OCoPs. The chapter discusses CoPs and proceeds to provide definitions of key and related terms such as community,

Harasim, Linda (2012-03-22). Learning Theory and Online Technology (p. 167). Taylor and Francis. Kindle Edition.